To understand the significance of the Siege of Tsingtao in 1914, it's essential to delve into the broader historical context of the time. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, China was undergoing a period of turmoil and transformation. The Qing Dynasty, which had ruled China for centuries, was in decline, and foreign powers were eager to capitalize on its weakness.
Imperialism was at its height during this era, with powerful nations seeking to expand their territorial holdings and exert their dominance over other regions of the world. China, with its vast territory and immense population, was an attractive target for imperialist ambitions. Germany, a relatively new entrant into the scramble for colonies, sought to establish its presence in China. One of the key ways it did so was through the acquisition of territorial concessions. These concessions were areas of Chinese territory where foreign powers exercised significant control and autonomy. Among these concessions was the strategically located port city of Tsingtao. In 1897, Germany secured a lease agreement with the Qing Dynasty, granting them control of Tsingtao and its surrounding areas. This gave the Germans a valuable naval base and trading port on China's Shandong Peninsula. Tsingtao became a symbol of German imperial aspirations in the Far East.
In August 1914, World War I erupted in Europe, setting the stage for a global conflict that would reshape the world order. The conflict pitted the Entente Powers, including France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, against the Central Powers, which consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire.
The war in Europe had a ripple effect that extended far beyond the continent. It drew in nations and territories from around the world, including those in Asia. In the Far East, the situation was further complicated by imperialist ambitions and conflicting colonial interests.
Japan, an island nation in East Asia, had been modernizing and expanding its influence for decades. It had emerged victorious in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), establishing itself as a formidable regional power. With a growing appetite for imperial expansion, Japan saw an opportunity in the chaos of World War I. Japan was aligned to the Entente Powers, and as such, it found itself aligned against Germany. The outbreak of war presented Japan with a chance to seize German-controlled territories and expand its empire. Tsingtao, with its strategic location and German control, was a prime target. As Japan declared war on Germany on August 27, 1914, it set the stage for a military campaign that would reverberate across Asia. The Siege of Tsingtao was about to begin, with Japan taking the lead and drawing support from its British allies.
The Siege Unfolds: Strategies and Challenges
With their sights firmly set on capturing Tsingtao, the Japanese forces continued their advance. General Meyer-Waldeck, leading the German and Austro-Hungarian defenders, recognized the impending threat and made a strategic decision. He withdrew his forces from the two outer defensive lines, consolidating them on the innermost line along the hills closest to the town. This defensive manoeuvre was an attempt to hold the Japanese at bay for as long as possible.
Amidst the siege, the Austro-Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth was stationed in Tsingtao. At the onset of the war, on September 2, 1914, the German gunboat Jaguar engaged in a dramatic encounter. It successfully sank the stranded Japanese destroyer Shirotae. This early naval skirmish set the tone for the maritime battles that would unfold during the siege. The siege witnessed a significant moment in military history—the second air-sea battle on record. A Farman seaplane launched by the Japanese vessel Wakamiya attempted an aerial attack on the Kaiserin Elisabeth and the Jaguar in Qiaozhou Bay. Although the attempt was ultimately unsuccessful, it marked a pioneering episode in the annals of warfare.
Early in the siege, the SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth, along with the German gunboat Jaguar, embarked on a daring sortie against the Japanese vessels blockading Tsingtao. While their efforts proved unsuccessful, they demonstrated the unwavering determination of the defenders. As the siege continued, the cruiser's 15‑cm and 4.7‑cm guns were removed from the ship and installed onshore, giving rise to the formidable Batterie Elisabeth. The ship's crew also played an active role in the defence of Tsingtao.
As the siege progressed, the Japanese forces pressed forward. On September 13, they launched a cavalry raid on the German rear guard at Tsimo, which ultimately led to a German retreat. This tactical move allowed the Japanese to take control of Jiaozhou and the Shantung railway, further tightening the grip on Tsingtao. General Kamio considered this a pivotal moment for his land forces, as the challenging weather conditions prompted a strategic retreat.
After a period of consolidation, General Kamio resumed his advance on September 26. The German defenders were forced to retreat, withdrawing beyond the river Litsun. The Japanese made significant progress, crossing the river Paisha and reaching the northern bank of the Litsun. The siege was far from over, but the momentum was with the Japanese.
On September 27, General Kamio's forces launched a frontal assault on Prince Heinrich Hill. This assault, however, proved to be a perilous endeavor. The Germans had established a formidable defensive position, with four Maxim guns raining bullets down from the summit. The naval vessels Kaiserin Elisabeth and Leopard also played their part by shelling the exposed slopes, nearly routing the Japanese right flank. It was a testament to the resilience of the German defenders that they could mount such a spirited defense.
As the siege dragged on, several naval vessels trapped in the harbor faced a grim fate. On September 28, the German ships Cormoran, Iltis, and Luchs were deliberately scuttled to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. These scuttling actions were a stark reminder of the desperate circumstances faced by the defenders. October 17 brought a dramatic turn of events as the German torpedo boat S90 executed a daring sortie. It slipped out of Tsingtao harbor and fired a torpedo that struck the Japanese cruiser Takachiho, resulting in the loss of 271 officers and men. However, S90 was unable to navigate the blockade back to Tsingtao and was subsequently scuttled in Chinese waters when it ran low on fuel.
The climax of the siege approached rapidly. On October 29, the German cruiser Tiger was scuttled, followed by the Kaiserin Elisabeth on November 2. The final blow came on November 7, the day when the fortress surrendered to Japanese forces. The defenders, exhausted and running out of options, recognized that surrender was the only viable course of action. Throughout the siege, Tsingtao endured a punishing bombardment. The Japanese forces relentlessly shelled the fort and the city. This bombardment included very large 11‑inch howitzers on land, in addition to the firepower of Japanese naval guns. The German defenses were subjected to constant bombardment, with the Japanese steadily advancing their trenches under the cover of their artillery.
As the siege continued into early November, the German defenders found themselves in a dire situation. Ammunition for their heavy guns in the port fortifications was running dangerously low. Surrender appeared increasingly inevitable. During this time, the German garrison had only one Etrich Taube airplane at their disposal, piloted by Lieutenant Gunther Plüschow. This aircraft played a crucial role in reconnaissance, conducting frequent flights and launching nuisance attacks on the blockading squadron. Notably, Plüschow claimed the downing of a Japanese Farman MF.VII using his pistol, marking the first aerial victory in aviation history.
The night of November 6 saw waves of Japanese infantry launching an assault on the third line of defense, catching the defenders in a deadly crossfire. The following morning, the German and Austro-Hungarian forces, realizing the futility of their situation, requested terms of surrender. On November 16, 1914, the Allies formally took possession of the colony.
The Siege of Tsingtao had come to an end, but its impact and legacy would resonate far beyond the fall of the fortress.